CELL BIOLOGY

CELL BIOLOGY

Cell biology is a branch of biology that studies the different structures and functions of the cell and focuses mainly on the idea of the cell as the basic unit of life. Cell biology explains the structure, organization of the organelles they contain, their physiological properties, metabolic processes, signaling pathways, life cycle, and interactions with their environment. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level as it encompasses prokaryotic  cells and eukaryotic cells. Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences it is also essential for research in bio-medical fields such as cancer, and other diseases. Research in cell biology is closely related to genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, and developmental biology.

Chemical and Molecular Environment

The study of the cell is done on a molecular level; however, most of the processes within the cell is made up of a mixture of small organic molecules, inorganic ions, hormones, and water. Approximately 75-85% of the cell’s volume is due to water making it an indispensable solvent as a result of its polarity and structure. These molecules within the cell, which operate as substrates, provide a suitable environment for the cell to carry out metabolic reactions and signalling. The cell shape varies among the different types of organisms, and are thus then classified into two categories: eukaryotes and prokaryotes. In the case of eukaryotic cells - which are made up of animal, plant, fungi, and protozoa cells - the shapes are generally round and spherical, while for prokaryotic cells – which are composed of bacteria and archaea - the shapes are: spherical (cocci), rods (bacillus), curved (vibrio), and spirals (spirochetes).

Cell biology focuses more on the study of eukaryotic cells, and their signalling pathways, rather than on prokaryotes which is covered under microbiolgy. The main constituents of the general molecular composition of the cell includes: proteins and lipids which are either free flowing or membrane bound, along with different internal compartments known as organelles. This environment of the cell is made up of hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions which allows for the exchange of the above-mentioned molecules and ions. The hydrophilic regions of the cell are mainly on the inside and outside of the cell, while the hydrophobic regions are within the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane. The cell membrane consists of lipids and proteins which accounts for its hydrophobicity as a result of being non-polar substances. Therefore, in order for these molecules to participate in reactions, within the cell, they need to be able to cross this membrane layer to get into the cell. They accomplish this process of gaining access to the cell via: osmotic pressure, diffusion,  concentration gradients, and membrane channels. Crossing the phospholipid bilayer to the inside of the cell there are extensive internal sub-cellular membrane-bounded compartments called organelles.

Organelles

ORGANELLE	LOCATION	DESCRIPTION	FUNCTION
cell wall	plant, not animal	*outer layer *rigid, strong, stiff *made of cellulose	*support (grow tall) *protection *allows H2O, O2, CO2 to pass into and out of cell
cell membrane	both plant/animal	*plant - inside cell wall *animal - outer layer; cholesterol *selectively permeable	*support *protection *controls movement of materials in/out of cell *barrier between cell and its environment *maintains homeostasis
nucleus	both plant/animal	*large, oval	*controls cell activities
nuclear membrane	both plant/animal	*surrounds nucleus *selectively permeable	*Controls movement of materials in/out of nucleus
cytoplasm	both plant/animal	*clear, thick, jellylike material and organelles found inside cell membrane	*supports /protects cell organelles
endoplasmic reticulum (E.R.)	both plant/animal	*network of tubes or membranes	*carries materials through cell
ribosome	both plant/animal	*small bodies free or attached to E.R.	*produces proteins
mitochondrion	both plant/animal	*bean-shaped with inner membranes	*breaks down sugar molecules into energy
vacuole	plant - few/large animal - small	*fluid-filled sacs	*store food, water, waste (plants need to store large amounts of food)
lysosome	plant - uncommon animal - common	*small, round, with a membrane	*breaks down larger food molecules into smaller molecules *digests old cell parts
chloroplast	plant, not animal	*green, oval usually containing chlorophyll (green pigment)	*uses energy from sun to make food for the plant (photosynthesis)

By

 

Reshma P 

BIODIVERSITY

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the variety of life.  It can be studied on many levels.  At the highest level, you can look at all the different species on the entire Earth.  On a much smaller scale, you can study biodiversity within a pond ecosystem or a neighborhood park. Identifying and understanding the relationships between all the life on Earth are some of the greatest challenges in science.

Most people recognize biodiversity by species.  A species is a group of living organisms that can interbreed.  Examples of species include, blue whales, white-tailed deer, white pine trees, sunflowers and microscopic bacteria that you cannot even see with your eye.  Biodiversity includes the full range of species that live in an area. 

Biodiversity at a Glance

Let’s look at the species biodiversity within a local pond.  At first glance, we can identify different plants, including cattails and water lilies.  If we wait a while, we might be able to spot a garter snake, a bullfrog or maybe a red-winged blackbird.  With a closer look, you can see invertebrates and worms under leaves, on grasses and in the pond water. 

Think you’re done? - You have not even scratched the surface of the biodiversity within the pond!  Using a microscope, you would be able to see hundreds or even thousands of different bacteria that inhabit the pond water.  They are all part of the species biodiversity of this small ecosystem!

Biodiversity is More than Just Species

Species diversity is only one part of biodiversity. To properly catalogue all the life on Earth, we also have to recognize the genetic diversity that exists within species as well as the diversity of entire habitats and ecosystems.

Genetic Biodiversity is the variation in genes that exists within a species.  A helpful way to understand genetic diversity is to think about dogs.  All dogs are part of the same species, but their genes can dictate whether they are Chihuahua or a Great Dane.   There can be a lot of variation in genes – just think about all the colors, sizes, and shapes that make up the genetic diversity of dogs. 

Ecological Biodiversity is the diversity of ecosystems, natural communities and habitats.  In essence, it’s the variety of ways that species interact with each other and their environment.   The forests of Maine differ from the forests of Colorado by the types of species found in both ecosystems, as well as the temperature and rainfall.  These two seemingly similar ecosystems have a lot of differences that make them both special.

Some Biodiversity Facts

Researchers have estimated that there are between 3 - 30 million species on Earth, with a few studies predicting that there may be over 100 million species on Earth!  Currently, we have identified only 1.7 million species, so we have a long way to go before we can come close to figuring out how many species are on Earth!

• There is more biodiversity within tropical ecosystems than temperate or boreal ecosystems.  Tropical rainforests have the most diversity.
• The most diverse group of animals are invertebrates. Invertebrates are animals without backbones, including insects, crustaceans, sponges, scorpions and many other kinds of organisms. Over half of all the animals already identified are invertebrates. Beetles are some of the most numerous species.
• Science has so much more to learn about the biodiversity of microscopic organisms like bacteria and protozoa.

The Importance of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is extremely important to people and the health of ecosystems.  A few of the reasons are:

• Biodiversity allows us to live healthy and happy lives.  It provides us with an array of foods and materials and it contributes to the economy.  Without a diversity of pollinators, plants, and soils, our supermarkets would have a lot less produce. 
• Most medical discoveries to cure diseases and lengthen life spans were made because of research into plant and animal biology and genetics.  Every time a species goes extinct or genetic diversity is lost, we will never know whether research would have given us a new vaccine or drug.
• Biodiversity is an important part of ecological services that make life livable on Earth. They include everything from cleaning water and absorbing chemicals, which wetlands do, to providing oxygen for us to breathe—one of the many things that plants do for people. 
• Biodiversity allows for ecosystems to adjust to disturbances like extreme fires and floods.  If a reptile species goes extinct, a forest with 20 other reptiles is likely to adapt better than another forest with only one reptile. 
• Genetic diversity prevents diseases and helps species adjust to changes in their environment. 
• Simply for the wonder of it all. There are few things as beautiful and inspiring as the diversity of life that exists on Earth. 

Threats to Biodiversity

Extinction is a natural part of life on Earth.  Over the history of the planet most of the species that ever existed, evolved and then gradually went extinct.  Species go extinct because of natural shifts in the environment that take place over long periods of time, such as ice ages. 

Today, species are going extinct at an accelerated and dangerous rate, because of non-natural environmental changes caused by human activities. Some of the activities have direct effects on species and ecosystems, such as:

• Habitat loss/ degradation
• Over exploitation (such as overfishing) 
• Spread of Non-native Species/ Diseases

Some human activities have indirect but wide-reaching effects on biodiversity, including:

• Climate change
• Pollution

All of these threats have put a serious strain on the diversity of species on Earth.  According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), globally about one third of all known species are threatened with extinction. That includes 29% of all amphibians, 21% of all mammals and 12% of all birds.  If we do not stop the threats to biodiversity, we could be facing another mass extinction with dire consequences to the environment and human health and livelihood. 

Helping Biodiversity in your Own Backyard

You can play a part in protecting the biodiversity of your local community by creating a Certified Wildlife Habitat^®. One of the greatest threats to biodiversity is habitat loss. A Certified Wildlife Habitat^® provides food, shelter, water and a place to raise young for native wildlife—the essential elements of habitat that wildlife need to survive. A Certified Wildlife Habitat^® can provide food and homes for a range of local species that need your help.   

By

Bincy mol

NATURAL SELECTION

NATURAL SELECTION

Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in heritable traits of a population over time. The term "natural selection" was popularised by Charles Darwin who compared it with artificial selection, now more commonly referred to as selective breeding.

Variation exists within all populations of organisms. This occurs partly because random mutations arise in the genome of an individual organism, and these mutations can be passed to offspring. Throughout the individuals’ lives, their genomes interact with their environments to cause variations in traits. (The environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic environment.) Individuals with certain variants of the trait may survive and reproduce more than individuals with other, less successful, variants. Therefore, the population evolves. Factors that affect reproductive success are also important, an issue that Darwin developed in his ideas on sexual selection, which was redefined as being included in natural selection in the 1930s when biologists considered it not to be very important, and fecundity selection, for example.

Natural selection acts on the phenotype, or the observable characteristics of an organism, but the genetic (heritable) basis of any phenotype that gives a reproductive advantage may become more common in a population (see allele frequency). Over time, this process can result in populations that specialise for particular ecological niches (microevolution) and may eventually result in the emergence of new species (macroevolution). In other words, natural selection is an important process (though not the only process) by which evolution takes place within a population of organisms. Natural selection can be contrasted with artificial selection, in which humans intentionally choose specific traits (although they may not always get what they want). In natural selection there is no intentional choice. In other words, artificial selection is teleological and natural selection is not teleological.

Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology. The concept was published by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in a joint presentation of papers in 1858, and set out in Darwin's influential 1859 book On the Origin of Species, in which natural selection was described as analogous to artificial selection, a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favoured for reproduction. The concept of natural selection was originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, nothing was known of modern genetics. The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical and molecular gentics is termed the modern evolutionary synthesis.Natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution.

General Principles

Natural variation occurs among the individuals of any population of organisms. Many of these differences do not affect survival or reproduction, but some differences may improve the chances of survival and reproduction of a particular individual. A rabbit that runs faster than others may be more likely to escape from predators, and algae that are more efficient at extracting energy from sunlight will grow faster. Something that increases an organism's chances of survival will often also include its reproductive rate; however, sometimes there is a trade-off between survival and current reproduction. Ultimately, what matters is total lifetime reproduction of the organism.

The peppered moth exists in both light and dark colours in the United Kingdom, but during the industrial revolution, many of the trees on which the moths rested became blackened by soot, giving the dark-coloured moths an advantage in hiding from predators. This gave dark-coloured moths a better chance of surviving to produce dark-coloured offspring, and in just fifty years from the first dark moth being caught, nearly all of the moths in industrial Manchester were dark. The balance was reversed by the effect of the  Clean Air Act 1956, and the dark moths became rare again, demonstrating the influence of natural selection on peppered moth evolution. 

If the traits that give these individuals a reproductive advantage are also heritable, that is, passed from parent to offspring, then there will be a slightly higher proportion of fast rabbits or efficient algae in the next generation. This is known as differential reproduction. Even if the reproductive advantage is very slight, over many generations any heritable advantage will become dominant in the population. In this way the natural environment of an organism "selects" for traits that confer a reproductive advantage, causing gradual changes or evolution of life. This effect was first described and named by Charles Darwin.

The concept of natural selection predates the understanding of genetics, the mechanism of heredity for all known life forms. In modern terms, selection acts on an organism's phenotype, or observable characteristics, but it is the organism's genetic make-up or genotype that is inherited. The phenotype is the result of the genotype and the environment in which the organism lives.

This is the link between natural selection and genetics, as described in the modern evolutionary synthesis. Although a complete theory of evolution also requires an account of how genetic variation arises in the first place (such as by mutation and sexual reproduction) and includes other evolutionary mechanisms (such as genetic drift and gene flow), natural selection appears to be the most important mechanism for creating complex adaptations in nature. 

By

Reshma P

NATURAL RESOURCES

NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural Resources are all that exists without the actions of humankind. This includes all natural characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, and electrical properties and forces. On earth we include sunlight,  atmosphere,  water, land (includes all minerals) along with all vegetation and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances.

Particular areas such as "The rainforest in Fatu-Hiva " are often characterized by the biodiversity and geodiversity existent in their ecosystems. Natural resources may be further classified in different ways. Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be used) that can be found within the environment. Every man-made product is composed of natural resources (at its fundamental level). A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, and air, as well as a living organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form which must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, mineral oil, and most forms of energy.

There is much debate worldwide over natural resource allocations, this is partly due to increasing scarcity (depletion of resources) but also because the exportation of natural resources is the basis for many economies (particularly for developed nations).

Some natural resources such as sunlight and air can be found everywhere, and are known as ubiquitous resources. However, most resources only occur in small sporadic areas, and are referred to as localized resources. There are very few resources that are considered inexhaustible (will not run out in foreseeable future) – these are solar radiation, geothermal energy, and air (though access to clean air may not be). The vast majority of resources are exhaustible, which means they have a finite quantity and can be depleted if managed improperly.

Types of Natural Resources

All Natural Resources fall under two main categories: Renewable and Non-renewable Resources. The table below will help us understand this better.

• Renewable resources

Renewable resources are those that are constantly available (like water) or can be reasonably replaced or recovered, like vegetative lands. Animals are also renewable because with a bit of care, they can reproduce offsprings to replace adult animals. Even though some renewable resources can be replaced, they may take many years and that does not make them renewable.

If renewable resources come from living things, (such as trees and animals) they can be called organic renewable resources.

If renewable resources come from non-living things, (such as water, sun and wind) they can be called inorganic renewable resources.

• Non-renewable resources

Non-renewable resources are those that cannot easily be replaced once they are destroyed. Examples include fossil fuels. Minerals are also non-renewable because even though they form naturally in a process called the rock cycle, it can take thousands of years, making it non-renewable. Some animals can also be considered non-renewable, because if people hunt for a particular species without ensuring their reproduction, they will be extinct. This is why we must ensure that we protect resources that are endangered.

Non-renewable resources can be called inorganic resources if they come from non-living things. Examples include include, minerals, wind, land, soil and rocks.

Some non-renewable resources come from living things — such as fossil fuels. They can be called organic non-renewable resources.

• Metallic and Non-metallic Resources

Inorganic resources may be metallic or non-metallic. Metallic minerals are those that have metals in them. They are harder, shiny, and can be melted to form new products. Examples are iron, copper and tin. Non-metallic minerals have no metals in them. They are softer and do not shine. Examples include clay and coal. 

By

Aswathy. V S

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT

          The Human Genome Project (HGP) was the international, collaborative research program whose goal was the complete mapping and understanding of all the genes of human beings. All our genes together are known as our "genome."

           The HGP was the natural culmination of the history of genetics research. In 1911, Alfred Sturtevant, then an undergraduate researcher in the laboratory of Thomas Hunt Morgan, realized that he could - and had to, in order to manage his data - map the locations of the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) genes whose mutations the Morgan laboratory was tracking over generations. Sturtevant's very first gene map can be likened to the Wright brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk. In turn, the Human Genome Project can be compared to the Apollo program bringing humanity to the moon.

         The hereditary material of all multi-cellular organisms is the famous double helix of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains all of our genes. DNA, in turn, is made up of four chemical bases, pairs of which form the "rungs" of the twisted, ladder-shaped DNA molecules. All genes are made up of stretches of these four bases, arranged in different ways and in different lengths. HGP researchers have deciphered the human genome in three major ways: determining the order, or "sequence," of all the bases in our genome's DNA; making maps that show the locations of genes for major sections of all our chromosomes; and producing what are called linkage maps, complex versions of the type originated in early Drosophila research, through which inherited traits (such as those for genetic disease) can be tracked over generations.

          The HGP has revealed that there are probably about 20,500 human genes. The completed human sequence can now identify their locations. This ultimate product of the HGP has given the world a resource of detailed information about the structure, organization and function of the complete set of human genes. This information can be thought of as the basic set of inheritable "instructions" for the development and function of a human being.

          The International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium published the first draft of the human genome in the journal Nature in February 2001 with the sequence of the entire genome's three billion base pairs some 90 percent complete. A startling finding of this first draft was that the number of human genes appeared to be significantly fewer than previous estimates, which ranged from 50,000 genes to as many as 140,000.The full sequence was completed and published in April 2003.

Upon publication of the majority of the genome in February 2001, Francis Collins, the director of NHGRI, noted that the genome could be thought of in terms of a book with multiple uses: "It's a history book - a narrative of the journey of our species through time. It's a shop manual, with an incredibly detailed blueprint for building every human cell. And it's a transformative textbook of medicine, with insights that will give health care providers immense new powers to treat, prevent and cure disease."

          The tools created through the HGP also continue to inform efforts to characterize the entire genomes of several other organisms used extensively in biological research, such as mice, fruit flies and flatworms. These efforts support each other, because most organisms have many similar, or "homologous," genes with similar functions. Therefore, the identification of the sequence or function of a gene in a model organism, for example, the roundworm C. elegans, has the potential to explain a homologous gene in human beings, or in one of the other model organisms. These ambitious goals required and will continue to demand a variety of new technologies that have made it possible to relatively rapidly construct a first draft of the human genome and to continue to refine that draft. These techniques include:

• DNA Sequencing 
• The Employment of Restriction Fragment-Length Polymorphisms (RFLP) 
• Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YAC) 
• Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BAC) The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 
• Electrophoresis

          Of course, information is only as good as the ability to use it. Therefore, advanced methods for widely disseminating the information generated by the HGP to scientists, physicians and others, is necessary in order to ensure the most rapid application of research results for the benefit of humanity. Biomedical technology and research are particular beneficiaries of the HGP.

        However, the momentous implications for individuals and society for possessing the detailed genetic information made possible by the HGP were recognized from the outset. Another major component of the HGP - and an ongoing component of NHGRI - is therefore devoted to the analysis of the ethical, legal and social implications (ELSI) of our newfound genetic knowledge, and the subsequent development of policy options for public consideration.

By

Vinesh S

WASTE MANAGEMENT

WASTE MANAGEMENT

“Waste management is the “generation, prevention, characterization, monitoring, treatment, handling, reuse and residual disposition of solid wastes”. There are various types of solid waste including municipal (residential, institutional, commercial), agricultural, and special (health care, household hazardous wastes, sewage sludge).”

          Waste management is the process of treating solid wastes and offers variety of solutions for recycling items that don’t belong to trash. It is about how garbage can be used as a valuable resource. Waste management is something that each and every household and business owner in the world needs. Waste management disposes of the products and substances that you have use in a safe and efficient manner.

Methods of Waste Disposal

Landfill

         The Landfill is the most popularly used method of waste disposal used today. This process of waste disposal focuses attention on burying the waste in the land. Landfills are found in all areas. There is a process used that eliminates the odors and dangers of waste before it is placed into the ground. While it is true this is the most popular form of waste disposal it is certainly far from the only procedure and one that may also bring with it an assortment of space.

This method is becoming less these days although, thanks to  the lack of space available and the strong presence of methane and other landfill gases, both of which can  cause numerous contamination problems. Many areas are reconsidering the use of landfills.

Incineration/Combustion

          Incineration or combustion is a type disposal method in which municipal solid wastes are burned at high temperatures so as as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. The biggest advantage of this type of method is that it can reduce the volume of solid waste to 20 to 30 percent of the original volume, decreases the space they take up and reduce the stress on landfills. This process is also known as thermal treatment where solid waste materials are converted by Incinerators into heat, gas, steam and ash. Incineration is something that is very in countries where landfill space is no longer available, which includes Japan.

Recovery and Recycling

          Resource recovery is the process of taking useful discarded items for a specific next use. These discarded items are then processed to extract or recover materials and resources or convert them to energy in the form of useable heat, electricity or fuel.

Recycling is the process of converting waste products into new products to prevent energy usage and consumption of fresh raw materials. Recycling is the third component of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle waste hierarchy. The idea behind recycling is to reduce energy usage, reduce volume of landfills, reduce air and water pollution, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and preserve natural resources for future use.

Plasma gasification

          Plasma gasification is another form of waste management. Plasma is a primarily an electrically charged or a highly ionized gas. Lighting is one type of plasma which produces temperatures that exceed 12,600 °F . With this method of waste disposal, a vessel uses characteristic plasma torches operating at +10,000 °F which is  creating a gasification zone till 3,000 °F for the conversion of solid or liquid wastes into a syngas.

During the treatment solid waste by plasma gasification, the waste’s molecular bonds are broken down as result of the  intense heat in the vessels and the elemental components. Thanks to this process, destruction of waste and dangerous materials is found. This form of waste disposal provides renewable energy and an assortment of other fantastic benefits.

Composting

         Composting is a easy and natural bio-degradation process that takes organic wastes i.e. remains of plants and garden and kitchen waste and turns into nutrient rich food for your plants. Composting, normally used for organic farming, occurs by allowing organic materials to sit in one place for months until microbes decompose it. Composting is one of the best method of waste disposal as it can turn unsafe organic products into safe compost. On the other side, it is slow process and takes lot of space.

and turns it to

Waste to Energy (Recover Energy)

      Waste to energy(WtE) process involves converting of non-recyclable waste items  into useable heat, electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes. This type of source of energy is a renewable energy source as non-recyclable waste can be used over and over again to create energy. It can also help to reduce carbon emissions by offsetting the need for energy from fossil sources. Waste-to-Energy, also widely recognized by its acronym WtE is the generation of energy in the form of heat or electricity from waste.

Avoidance/Waste Minimization

         The most easier method of waste management is to reduce creation of waste materials thereby reducing the amount of waste going to landfills. Waste reduction can be done through recycling old materials like jar, bags, repairing broken items instead of buying new one, avoiding use of disposable products like plastic bags, reusing second hand items, and buying items that uses less designing.

Recycling and composting are a couple of the best methods of waste management. Composting is so far only possible on a small scale, either by private individuals or in areas where waste can be mixed with farming soil or used for landscaping purposes. Recycling is widely used around the world, with plastic, paper and metal leading the list of the most recyclable items. Most material recycled is reused for its original purpose.

By

Vinesh S

GENETIC ENGINEERING

GENETIC ENGINEERING

        Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using biotechnology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. New DNA may be inserted in the host genome by first isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular cloning methods to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing the DNA, and then inserting this construct into the host organism. Genes may be removed, or "knocked out", using a nuclease. Gene targeting is a different technique that uses homologus recombination to change an endogenous gene, and can be used to delete a gene, remove exons, add a gene, or introduce point mutations. 

        An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMOs were bacteria generated in 1973 and GM mice in 1974. Insulin producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982 and genetically modified food has been sold since 1994. Glofish, the first GMO designed as a pet, was first sold in the United States in December 2003.

        Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in numerous fields including research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in laundry detergent and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now manufactured in GM cells, experimental GM cell lines and GM animals such as mice or zebrafish are being used for research purposes, and genetically modified crops have been commercialized.

Applications of Genetic engineering

• Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on a wide range of plants, animals and microorganisms.
• In medicine, genetic engineering has been used to mass-produce insulin, human growth hormones, follistim (for treating infertility), human albumin, monoclonal antibodies, antihemophilic factors, vaccines and many other drugs.
• In research, organisms are genetically engineered to discover the functions of certain genes.
• Industrial applications include transforming microorganisms such as bacteria or yeast, or insect mammalian cells with a gene coding for a useful protein. Mass quantities of the protein can be produced by growing the transformed organism in bioreactors using fermaentation, then purifying the protein.
• Genetic engineering is also used in agriculture to create genetically-modified crops or genetically-modified organisms.

 By

Aparna S M